1.INTRODUCTION

                              On January 19, 2000, Transmeta Corporation introduced

        Crusoe, a new microprocessor, into a market long controlled by one dominant company. Over the years, many companies have tried to do the same, and none of them has been very successful. But unlike all those other companies, Transmeta believes that they produced something truly revolutionary. And that it’s destined to change everything. Now, just about this time you’re thinking, Ah, just what the world needs, another processor company making big promises. And that sentiment would certainly be understandable, if Crusoe were just another processor. But it’s not. Unlike everything else that’s come before it, the Crusoe processor is not technology for technology’s sake. It’s technology with a purpose. Crusoe is the first processor designed from the ground up to solve the problems of mobile and Internet computing in ways other processors can’t. And in doing so, Crusoe is the first processor to offer benefits that really matter to people.  The Crusoe processor was designed to fill the needs of mobile users. The first smart processor of its kind, Crusoe delivers high performance, longer battery life, and runs cooler than conventional chips. Being x86 compatible, the Crusoe processor family enables a whole new world of ultra-light mobile notebooks, and Internet appliances. Transmeta is dedicated to enhancing the user’s experience. Transmeta believes in putting the users daily needs first and foremost. Whether you’re at work, at home, or on the move, Crusoe will be there to improve your lifestyle. From lightweight, extended battery life notebooks to meet one’s mobile computing needs to ultra-dense servers that help save electricity and costs, Crusoe is there.  You see,  Crusoe is different in almost every way. Unlike the industry’s legacy hardware-only processors, Crusoe is a unique combination of software and hardware. It’s this radical design that gives Crusoe its important advantages, and manufacturers of all kinds of electronic devices their first truly innovative new platform in over 25 years.                      Thanks to Crusoe, mobile devices can be made smaller and lighter than ever. These new devices will be more comfortable to use, too, because Crusoe generates very little heat - a problem that plagues the industry’s legacy hardware-only processors. And because it uses far less power, and mobile devices running on Crusoe run far longer on a single battery charge.   All of which means Crusoe isn’t just another processor. It’s a whole new world. Let us show you around.     

2.SIMPLY REVOLUTIONAL

Transmeta’s premier product is the Crusoe processor. It is a revolutionary x86-compatible family of solutions specially designed for the handheld and lightweight mobile computing market. The high-performance Crusoe processor consumes 60 to 70 percent less power and runs much cooler than competing chips, by transferring the most complex part of a processor’s job - determining what instructions to execute and when - to software in a process called Code Morphing. Because it enables a battery charge to last twice as long, this technology allows all-day computing. What makes the Crusoe processor ideal for Internet devices and the ultra-light mobile PC category?

Checkout these features :

·        Remarkably low power consumption, allowing the processor to run cooler than conventional chips. Battery life is extended up to a whole day.

·        High performance, optimized for real-life usage patterns. Crusoe delivers, whether you’re browsing the web, watching a DVD, or recalculating your spreadsheet.

·        x86 compatibility, so you are free to run the applications and Internet plug-ins of your choice.

How did we do it? Revolutionary technology.

 The Crusoe smart processor is a flexible and efficient hardware-software hybrid that replaces millions of power-hungry transistors with software.

Ultra-light mobile PCs and Internet devices made with Crusoe processors will be among the lightest, fastest, and coolest on the market.

3.Factors influencing for the innovation of Crusoe

 3.1.The Time is Right for a Smarter Processor:

       You can never go wrong getting the PC with the highest MHz - or so the saying used to go. That piece of advice was used time and again to convince users that the highest MHz was needed to run the software for today and into the future. The advice was fine as long as you were sitting at your desk all day, and the PC was tethered to a telephone line or internal LAN network. But the times, as they say, are a ’change in’.   In the PC environment emerging now, buying the fastest processor is turning out to be unproductive as well as unwise. The fastest processors now consume too much power relative to the workload they handle. And for mobile PCs, that’s really not what users need, because higher performance will not enable new mobile form factors. As the PC market becomes more mobile and more interconnected through wireless, light carry weight, small form factors, and battery life are the features that will be in demand.   The fastest processors today can consume over 10 times the power of most processors built just two to three years ago. Much of this power goes to waste as users run through their normal set of applications. Not an ideal set of circumstances, given the power situation in places like California. In battery mode, the consequences are not as dire, merely annoying and inconvenient: those high MHz processors must be slowed down to keep from overheating, or else they drain the battery before your work is done or the DVD movie you’re watching is finished.  Crusoe, however, is different. Thanks to its smart, software-based architecture and advanced power management technology, it only uses as much power as necessary to run the application at optimum levels, while conserving power to deliver the maximum battery life.

3.2. Cooler:

   Up until now, all so-called ’mobile’ processors were just desktop processors in disguise; they weren’t designed from the ground up to deliver the low power necessary to really be a true mobile solution. Of course, using these chips in desktop machines was easy, because all they required was an internal fan to cool them. But it’s a very different story in a mobile computer, and one that’s not so easily solved.   A mobile computer has to be, well, mobile. It should be as light and thin as possible, cool enough to use on your lap, and deliver great battery life. But until now, mobile computer manufacturers just didn’t have a truly mobile processor to design around. Instead, they’ve had to make compromises, either in battery life, or weight, or heat.   Crusoe changes all that, because it has makes truly mobile computers possible - machines that are thinner, lighter, cooler and longer running than ever. Having Crusoe to design around has given computer manufacturers a brand new platform from which they can produce innovations the industry has never seen before.   For example, today’s designers are using Crusoe processors in machines that are 3.5 lbs or less and thinner than an inch. And with Crusoe’s lower power requirements and higher performance going forward, designers will have many more choices for their next generation. They can keep the same dimensions and increase screen size. Or, they can increase screen size, and decrease thickness. Or, decrease thickness and weight at the same time. Crusoe gives designers a thermal envelope that really works for mobile, because it doesn’t require a lot of fancy cooling options that also take up space and burn precious power.

3.3.Lighter :

           In 1965, an engineer at Fairchild Semiconductor named Gordon Moore noted that the number of transistors on a chip doubled every 18 to 24 months. Commonly known now as “Moore’s Law”, it also predicts that the speed of microprocessors, at a constant cost, doubles every 18 to 24 months.   As Moore’s Law continues to hold, the trend in modern microprocessor design is to utilize this capability and cram as much functionality as possible into ever increasing die sizes. In fact with the arrival of the Pentium 4, transistor counts have ballooned to over 42 million.    In addition to their larger surface areas, these modern microprocessors also generate a great deal of heat, which must be removed with cooling fans or heat sinks - chunks of material designed to carry heat away from the microprocessor. All these considerations lead to mobile devices that are increasingly heavier and too bulky to use.   Transmeta has entirely avoided this issue by designing the Crusoe processor predominately in software. With the majority of the microprocessor logic implemented in the Code Morphing™ software, the Crusoe processor is designed with less logic transistors than conventional processors, and therefore is smaller and lighter. In addition to the Crusoe processor’s inherently simple design, Transmeta also possesses an adaptive power management technology called LongRun™ that efficiently manages the CPU thermal environment and, in some cases, replaces the need for a traditional cooling mechanism (such as a fan).   This combination of LongRun thermal management technology and the Crusoe processor’s silicon design simplicity enables the creation of systems that are both lighter and thinner than those possible with conventional microprocessors, thereby creating a new class of mobile devices.

3.4.Longest Running Mobile Processor:

   The speed of the fastest computer is exactly 0 MHz with a dead battery.   So why do we all think megahertz (MHz) is so important? Beats us. It’s nothing more than a processor’s internal clock speed. And yes, it’s a measurement of how fast the processor processes a certain unit of information, but it has very little to do with anything else. For instance, it has nothing to do with a system’s overall efficiency, and not that much to do with a system’s overall performance. But since megahertz was the easiest parameter to measure, naturally, that’s what people have traditionally measured. Unfortunately, it has become the yardstick by which we've measured the desirability of the whole system. Technology is iterative, though, and we now have the chance to get a more complete picture of just how valuable a mobile computer really is, by measuring the things that really matter. Like, battery life, for instance.   Today’s microprocessors have plenty of speed for today’s applications. And they’ll continue to get faster. But that’s not all they need to become. They need to become more efficient as well. And that’s where Crusoe comes in.     

4.ARCHITECTURE

Transmeta’s Crusoe processor enables a new class of low power computing and x86 software compatibility by combining the energy efficiency of a VLIW (very long instruction word) engine with the versatility of the innovative Code Morphing software.

Crusoe’s hardware architecture requires far fewer transistors than conventional x86 microprocessors thereby minimizing power consumption. Modern day processors, including Crusoe, execute several instructions at once to improve performance. However, a large fraction of the transistor count in traditional processors is devoted to rearranging instructions for optimal parallel execution.

Crusoe’s VLIW design avoids this power and transistor penalty by implementing such complexities in the Code Morphing software. These missing transistors then allow Crusoe to operate at lower power, in addition to making it easier to design and cheaper to manufacture.

4.1.Code Morphing™ software

Transmeta’s innovative Code Morphing software layer provides the Crusoe processor with x86 compatibility while empowering the complex microprocessor with the flexibilities typically enjoyed only by traditional software products.

The Code Morphing software is designed to dynamically translate x86 instructions into VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) instructions for the underlying Crusoe hardware engine. The Code Morphing software resides in flash ROM and is the first application to launch when the Crusoe processor is powered up. Upon completion of its initialization, other system software components such as the BIOS and operating system are loaded in traditional fashion.

The Code Morphing software consists of two main modules that work in conjunction to implement the functions of an x86 processor.

4.1.1.The Interpreter:

The Code Morphing software contains an Interpreter module that interprets x86 instructions one at a time, much like a traditional microprocessor. The Interpreter functionality also filters infrequently executed code from being needlessly optimized and gathers run time statistical information about the x86 instructions it sees for determining whether optimizations are necessary.

4.1.2.The Translator:

Upon detecting critical, frequently used x86 instruction sequences, the Code Morphing software invokes a Translator module that recompiles the x86 instructions into optimized VLIW instructions, called “Translations.” The native translations reduce the number of instructions executed and results in better performance.

Further efficiencies are possible by saving the translations memory that is inaccessible to normal x86 code. This special memory area is named the “Translation Cache” and allows the Code Morphing software to re-use translations and eliminate redundancies. Upon encountering previously translated x86 instruction sequences, the Code Morphing software skips the translation process and executes the cached translation directly out of the Translation Cache.

          Caching and re-using translations exploits the high degree of repetition typically found in real world workloads. The Code Morphing software matches repeated executions with entries in the Translation Cache and the optimized translation is executed at full speed with minimal overhead. The initial cost of the translation is amortized over repeated executions.

4.2.LongRun™ Power Management Technology

In addition to the Crusoe processor’s inherently energy efficient design, the Code Morphing software allows further reductions in power consumption by utilizing capabilities available only in the Crusoe hardware. One of these features is implemented in Transmeta’s LongRun Power Management technology. The LongRun technology provides Code Morphing software with the ability to adjust Crusoe’s voltage and clock frequency on the fly depending on the demands placed on the Crusoe processor by software. Because power varies linearly with clock speed and by the square of voltage¹, adjusting both can produce cubic reductions in power consumption, whereas conventional CPUs can adjust power only linearly (by only adjusting the frequency).

The Long Run policies are implemented within the Code Morphing software and it continuously scales both the frequency and voltage of the Crusoe processor according to the instantaneous demands of the computer system. It can detect different scenarios based on runtime performance information and then exploit these by adapting its power usage accordingly. All Long Run adjustments are seamless and transparent to the user.

Long Run is designed to provide just enough performance for the processor workload at hand. This allows it to deliver performance when necessary and conserves power when processor demand is low, thereby eliminating performance and energy wastage.

4.2.1.How does Long Run work?

Long Run operates by configuring the Crusoe processor to run at a number of different frequency and voltage points. The Long Run algorithm in the Code Morphing software monitors the Crusoe processor and dynamically switches between these points as runtime conditions change.

Long Run policies can be abstracted to the following points:

• If no idle time is detected during a workload, the frequency/voltage point is incremented (if possible).
• If idle time is detected, Long Run may decide that performance is being wasted and decrement the frequency/voltage level.

4.2.2.Thermal Management
The management of how a device will dispose of heat is an integral part of microprocessor design. Operating temperature rises as heat collects in a device, potentially causing damage and affecting performance. Designers are careful to incorporate thermal solutions in their designs that allow their products to operate within a safe temperature range. Conventional processors typically use Thermal Throttling for CPU thermal management. Thermal throttling regulates the thermal environment by alternating between running the processor at full speed and placing the processor in a sleep state whenever the upper limits of the thermal envelope are reached. Performance is delivered in discrete bursts that tend to be unfavorable for applications processing smooth multimedia content, such as software DVD and MP3 playback.

By integrating a thermal model into the software algorithm, LongRun manages the Crusoe processor’s thermal environment by using frequency/voltage shifts as a substitute for thermal throttling. In contrast to conventional thermal management techniques, the LongRun thermal extensions deliver higher performance at the same die temperature or the same performance at a lower die temperature, essentially expanding the thermal budget of the CPU. The LongRun thermal extensions allow the possible elimination of active cooling solutions, which reduces system weight and time-to-market as there is no need for explicit CPU thermal management.

With Long Run, Transmeta delivers superior performance for a given thermal envelope.
 Power=(Total Capacitance x Frequency x Voltage²) /2

4.3.VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word) Engine or Hardware Engine
A CPU architecture in which the processor executes long instruction words (molecules) consisting of several instructions (atoms) each. Unlike superscalar or out-of-order processors, a VLIW does not need to analyze whether instructions can be executed in parallel, since the molecule already explicitly encodes that information. This reduces hardware cost and enables higher processor speeds.

4.3.1.Molecule
A VLIW instruction word containing multiple atoms, which the hardware executes in parallel. The current Crusoe processors support 64- and 128-bit-long molecules containing two to four atoms each. When the hardware processes a molecule, it executes all atoms in the molecule in parallel, meaning the current Crusoe processors can perform up to four operations per cycle.
4.3.2.Atom
A component of a VLIW instruction word, or molecule. Conceptually, an atom is similar to an instruction for a RISC processor. A key difference is that a VLIW processor does not execute individual atoms by themselves but always as part of an entire molecule.

5.Performance 

The Crusoe processor gives you all the performance you need for today’s demanding applications, from office suites to multimedia applications like DVD or Internet content playback. In fact, in the category of Mobile Internet Computers, Crusoe processors deliver the highest performance available. But when you are a mobile user, peak performance is only part of the story.   Traditionally, desktop processors and systems have been optimized for peak performance, which is fine as long as unlimited power and cooling are available. In mobile systems, the situation is quite different. In a mobile setting, the issue of battery lifetime enters the picture: running the processor any faster than is necessary to get the job done is a waste of energy and reduces battery lifetime.   Unlike conventional processors, Crusoe processors are designed for mobile applications. Advanced power management techniques maximize battery life by dynamically matching performance levels to application demand. In this way, Crusoe processors give you the best of both worlds: full speed whenever you need it, and unprecedented battery lifetime.  

6.Upgradeable
                Early on in the design of the first Crusoe processor it was noted that a key advantage to the Software based architecture was the ability to perform upgrades to the processor. Upgrades not only during the design and verification phase but also to our customers and even to end-users.

How is this significant to the mobile PC world? On a first order basis, software upgrades allows Transmeta to design and bring to market processors in roughly half the time it takes for the standard hardware processors. Instead of having to tape out a new chip to fix bugs in silicon, which can take weeks for the new chip to come back, we can make most of our fixes in software which can be recompiled and loaded into a system the same day.

Our customers also enjoy the benefit of fixing many system related bugs through a Code Morphing software upgrade provided by Transmeta. Often late in the development cycle of a new mobile computer an OEM will run across a problem that may not be related to the processor but an I/O device. To proceed through qualification and meet schedules a software upgrade may be the only answer to getting a product rolled out on time.

Of course the ultimate goal of software upgrades is to provide new features and performance enhancements to end-users. Transmeta is early in the development of the technology and the interaction of its customers. Therefore most enhancements have been made in an incremental fashion to the newly arriving second wave of Crusoe ultra-light mobile PCs. More significant upgrades are due to arrive as the architecture expands with the next generation of Crusoe processors.

7.Advantages of the Code Morphing software

The Code Morphing software provides the Crusoe processor with unprecedented flexibility by implementing the complexities of a traditional microprocessor in software. This results in the following advantages over conventional x86 processors

                                                        

Traditional x86 Processors	Crusoe Processor with Code Morphing software
Translates single instructions one at time	Translates an entire group of x86 instructions at once
Translates each x86 instruction everytime it is encountered	Translates instructions once, saving the resultant translation in a cache for re-use
Full of complex, power-hungry transistors	Much of the processor functionality is implemented in software - less logic transistors, less power

                                                        

 With conventional microprocessor designs approaching 40 million transistors, managing heat and power consumption is now one of the industry’s biggest challenges. Switching every transistor on or off requires a bit of energy.   The Crusoe processor was designed specifically to avoid these energy pitfalls by using the Code Morphing software to replace logic transistors, therefore generating less heat. This also has the added benefit of rolling out software upgrades to the microprocessor logic independently from the hardware.   With a talented team of engineers dedicated to developing and enhancing the Code Morphing technology, Transmeta can provide quick, low cost improvements to performance and power consumption by simply releasing new Code Morphing software versions. In contrast, conventional x86 processors typically require new spins of hardware or exotic fabrication processes to deliver similar gains.   The flexibility provided by the Code Morphing technology allows Transmeta to spearhead industry wide initiatives for low power/high performance mobile computing.                           

8.DISADVANTAGES

8.1.Showing poor performance in multi-processing and graphics.

8.2.Most of the processor is depending on software so; there is chance of virus attack.

9.CONCLUSION

          Until now so many companies (IBM, SONY etc) released their notebooks with this processor. But the thing is, it is not able to beat the market of Intel. Whether for good or bad this has brought a revolutionary change in the designing of the processor. We have to wait and see whether this revolutionary product will dispose soon or will stand in the market for long time like Robert Crusoe, who is a navigator, who staid in dangerous pacific island for 7 years.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.http://www.transmeta.com

CYBER CRIMES

1. INTRODUCTION:

                        Today an increasing number of companies are connecting to the Internet to support sales activities or to provide their employees and customers with faster information and services.

                        The virtual world has taken over the real one, E-business and E-commerce, which are the new mantras and electronic transactions and dominate the overall business paradigm. In this rapidly evolving e-world that depends on free flowing information, security is the major problem to be considered.

                        Security on Internet is challenging. Security on an Internet is important because information has significant value. Implementing security involves assessing the possible threats to one’s network, servers and information. The goal is then to attempt to minimize the threat as much as possible.

                        This developing world of information technology has a negative side effect. It has opened the door to antisocial and criminal behavior.

1.1 The Computer Dependent Age:

                        The modern world relies on computerized system for almost every thing in the life, from air, train and bus traffic control to medical services. Systems

on co paradise human lives. The society depends on computer system, therefore has profound human dimension too.

                        The rapid expansion of large-scale computer networks and the ability to access systems through regular telephone lines increase the vulnerability to these systems. And it also increases the opportunity for misuse or criminal activity.

                Security is needed for both external and internal threats.

1.2 History of computer crimes:

                        It is difficult to determine when the first crime involving a computer actually took place. The computer has been around in some form since the abacus, which is known to exist in 3500BC in Japan, China, and India.

                        In 1801, profit motives encouraged Joseph Jacquard, a textile manufacturer in France, to design the forerunner of the computer card. This device allowed the repetition of services of stamps in the weaving of special fabrics. However Jacquard’s employees were committed to discourage further use of new technology.

1.3 Definition of computer crimes:

                        Experts debated on what exactly constitutes computer crime or a computer related crime. Even after several years there is no internationally recognized definition of these terms. A global definition of computer crime has not been achieved. Computer crime has been defined as “any illegal unethical or unauthorized behavior involving automatic processing or transmission of data”.

                        Threats come in two categories:

1.           Passive threats.

2.           Active threats.

               

Passive threats:               

                        This involves monitoring the transmission data of an organization.

         Here the goal of the assembler if to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive threats are difficult to detect because they do not involve alterations of data. These are of two types:

a.     Release of message content.

b.     traffic analysis.

Active threats:                  

                        These threats involve some modification of data stream or the creation of a false stream. These are of three types:

a.     Modification.

b.     Denial of message service.

c.      Masquerade.

2. TYPES OF CYBER CRIMES:

         2.1 Fraud by computer manipulation:              

                        Intangible assets represented in data format such as money on deposits or hours of work are the most common targets related to fraud.

                        Modern business is quickly replacing cash with deposits transacted on computer system creating computer fraud. Credit card information as well as personal and financial information on credit card has been frequently targeted by organized criminal crimes. Assets represented in data format often have a considerably higher value than traditionally economic assets resulting in potentially greater economic class.

2.2 Computer Forgery:

                        This happens when data is altered which is stored in documents that are in computerized form. Computers however can also be used as instruments for committing forgery. A new generation of fraudulent alteration or duplication emerged when computerized color laser copies became available.

                        These copies are capable of high-resolution copying, modification of documents that are even creating false documents without benefit of original. They produce documents with an equality that is indistinguishable from original documents.

Experts can only distinguish this.

                   

                            The widespread of computer networks is the need for people with common and shared interest to communicate with each other. Information can easily be represented and manipulated in electronic form. To meet the needs of sharing and communicating information, the computers need to be connected which is called data communication network.

2.3 Damage to Data/Programs:

                        This category of criminal activity involves either direct or search unauthorized access to computer system by introducing new programs known as viruses, worms or logic bombs. The unauthorized modification suppression or erasure of computer data or functions with the Internet to hinder normal functioning of the system is clearly a criminal activity and is commonly referred to as computer sabotage.

VIRUS: (Vital information resources under seize).

                        Virus is a series of program codes with the ability to attach itself to legitimate programs and propagate itself to other computer programs. Viruses are file viruses and bootsector viruses.

It attacks the fat so that there is no sequence of file content and it destroys the data content.

WORMS: (Write Once Read Many).

                        They are just added to the files and they do not manipulate. It differs from a virus in that it does not have the ability to replicate itself.

LOGIC BOMB:

                        As it involves the programming the destruction or modification of data is at a specific time in the future.

2.4 Unauthorized access:

                        The desire to gain unauthorized access to computer system can be prompted by several motives:

1.     From simple curiosity.

2.     To computer sabotage.

                        International unjustified access by a person not authorized by the owners or operators of a system may often constitute criminal behavior.

                        Unauthorized access creates the opportunity to cause additional unintended damage to data and system crashes. Accessing is often accomplished from a remote location along a telecommunication network by one of several means. The intruder may be able to take advantage of security measures to gain access or may find loopholes in existing security measures or system procedures. Frequently hackers impersonate legitimate users. This is especially common in systems.

3. PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT COMPUTER HACKING:   

                        Nobody’s data is completely safe. But everybody’s computers can still be protected against would-be hackers. Here is your defense arsenal.

3.1 Firewalls:

                        These are the gatekeepers to a network from the outside. Firewall should be installed at every point where the computer system comes in contact with other networks, including the Internet a separate local area network at customer’s site or telephone company switch.

3.2 Password protection:

                        At minimum, each item they logon, all PC users should be required to type-in password that only they and network administrator know. PC users should avoid picking words, phrases or numbers that anyone can guess easily, such as birth dates, a child’s name or initials. Instead they should use cryptic phrases or numbers that combine uppercase and lowercase.

 

                      Letters such as the “The Moon Also Rises”. In addition the system should require all users to change passwords every month or so and should lockout prospective users if they fail to enter the correct password three times in a row.

3.3 Viruses:

                        Viruses generally infect local area networks through workstations. So anti-virus software that works only on the server isn’t enough to prevent infection.

                        You cannot get a virus or any system-damaging software by reading e-mail. Viruses and other system-destroying bugs can only exist in files, and e-mail is not a system file. Viruses cannot exist there. Viruses are almost always specific of the operating system involved. Meaning, viruses created to infect DOS application can do no damage to MAC systems, and vice versa. The only exception to this is the Microsoft Word “macro virus” which infects documents instead of the program.

3.4 Encryption:

                        Even if intruders manage to break through a firewall, the data on a network can be made safe if it is encrypted. Many software packages and network programs – Microsoft Windows NT, Novel NetWare, and lotus notes among others- offer and – on encryption schemes that encode all the data sent on the network. In addition, companies can buy stand alone encryption packages to work with individual applications. Almost every encryption package is based on an approach known as public-private key.

                        Scrambled data is encoded using a secret key unique to that transmission. Receiver’s use a combination of the sender’s public key and their own private encryption key to unlock the secret code for that message decipher it.  

3.5 Audit Trails:

                        Almost all firewalls, encryption programs, and password schemes include an auditing function that records activities on the network.

                         This log which, ironically is turned off by many network administrators who doesn’t appreciate its importance is an excellent way of recording what occurred during an attack by hackers.

4. HOW TO AVOID GETTING HACKED:

                        Get licensed anti-virus software and one must update them regularly. Most good anti-virus software offers on-line updating.

                         There are some teams of people who have been formed to assist in solving hacker attacks and to disseminate information on security attacks. Two such teams are:

                        1. CERT (Computer Emergency Response Team).

                        2. FIRST (Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams).

                        Here are some points by which one can reduce the danger of getting hacked:

           

a.       Do not accept files from unknown sources if the files are sent as an attachment or sent to you while your are chatting.

b.       Do not download any executable files from unknown sources.

c.        Do not simply accept files even if it is from known sources. This is due to the fact that the latest virus could send itself as an attachment from an infected computer. It would be from your known sources.

d.       Constantly change your password. Use alphanumeric and special characters whenever possible. Never use your name, birth dates or words that are easily traced.

5. HACKING TECHNIQUES:

5.1 Callback units:

                        Callback units are a good security device, but with most phone systems, it is quite possible for the hacker to use the following steps to get around a callback unit that uses the same phone line for both incoming and outgoing calls: First, he calls the callback unit and enters any authorized ID code. After he enters this ID, the hacker holds the phone line open; he does not hand up. When the callback unit picks up the phone to call the user back, the hacker is there, waiting to meet it.

                        The ID code is simple for a hacker to obtain, because these codes are not meant to be security precautions. The callback unit itself provides security by keeping incoming calls from reaching the computer. The ID codes are no more private than most telephone numbers. Some callback units refer to the codes as “location identification numbers” and some locations are used by several different people, so their Ids are fairly well known. In some cases, callback units also have certain simple codes that are always defined by default. Once the hacker has entered an Id code and the callback unit has picked up the phone to re-call him. The hacker may or may not decide to provide a dial tone to allow to “thinking” if it is calling the correct number.

5.2 Trapdoors as a possibility:

                        A trapdoor is a set of special instructions embedded in the large program that is the operating system of a computer. A permanent, hopefully secret “doorway “, these special instruments enable anyone who knows about them to bypass normal security procedures and to gain access to the compote’s files. Although they may sound sinister, hackers did not invent trapdoors, although existing ones are certainly used by hackers who find out them.

5.3 The Decoy:

                        One of the more sophisticated hacking tools is known as the decoy. It requires that hacker an account on the system. The hacker with a low-security account tries this method to get higher-security account. He will first use his low-security account to write a program that will emulate the log-on procedures of the systems.

1.     Clear the terminal screen and place text on it that makes every thing look as if the system is in charge.

2.     Prompt for, and allow the user to enter both an account name and a password.

3.     Save that information in a place the hacker can access.

4.    Tell the user the account/password entries are not acceptable.

5.    Turn control of the terminal back over to the system.

5.4 Intercept:

                        Holding the line will only work with callback units that use the same phone lines to call in and to call out. Some callback units use different incoming and outgoing lines, numbers 555-4820 through 555-3830 are dedicated to users incoming calls and lines 555-2020 through 555-2030 are dedicated to the computers outgoing calls. The only thing a hacker needs in order to get through to these systems is a computer and a little time- he does not even need an ID code.

                        First, the hacker calls any one of the outgoing phone lines, which of course, will not answer, sooner, or later, though, while the hacker has his computer waiting there, listening to the ring, an authorized user will call one of the incoming lines and request to be called back. It will usually be less than an hours wait, but the hacker’s computer is perfectly capable of waiting for days, if need be.

5.5 Call Forwarding:

                        Many people use call forwarding by special arrangement with the Phone Company. When a customer requests for a call forwarding, the Phone Company uses its computer to forward all customers incoming calls to another number. Let us say for example, that you want calls that come to your office phone to be forwarded to your phone. A call from you to the Phone Company, some special setting in the phone company computer, and all calls to your home instead. This little bit of help from Phone Company is another tool used by hacker.     

5.6 Rapid fire:

                        Memory location manipulation can be helpful, but there is another more powerful possibility in some case, the Rapid-fire method. To understand how this method works, you have to know something about the way operating system works. When a user enters a command, the operating system first places the command in a holding area, the buffer, where it will sit for a few millionths of a second. The system looks at the command and says “Does this person really have authorization to do this, or not?” Then the command sits there a few millionths of a second while the system runs off to check the user’s authentication, when the system comes back to the command it will have one of the two possible answers: “ok, go ahead” or “sorry, get permission first”.

                        Once you are on a system that handles things like this, you can use the rapid-fire method to change the command while it is sitting in the buffer, waiting to be executed. If you can do this, you can do anything. You can enter a command that you know will be approved, such as “tell me the time”. As soon as the system runs off to verify your right to know the time, you can change the command in the buffer to something you know would not be approved, “give me the list of all the passwords”, when the system comes back with the “ok, go ahead”, it responds to the second command, not the first one. Of course, this exchange has to be done very rapidly, but more systems existing today can be fooled by this trick.

6. CONCLUSION:

                        The issue of network and Internet security has become increasingly more important as more and more business and people go on-line.

                        To avoid the information from hackers we use the passwords secretly and we change the passwords regularly. We cannot use our names, initials as passwords that are easily traced. We should not download any executable files from unknown sources, information from any sources without checking for virus. We have to use licensed anti-virus software. Also teams like CERT and FIRST assist in solving hacker attacks and to disseminate information on security.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY:

                        Computers Today.

                        Web Commerce Technology.